Chapter 10: Spirit Names and Religious Vocabulary

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[1] As a Christian-Indian, I take Algonquian “Keihtan” in a dual-sense, without further qualification. Since God «» Keihtan created all, created was the subset of “Indian Spirits.” No metaphysical contradiction is evident in singing the praises of God «» Keihtan.   I take ánawat > auntau in meaning. Therefore, the existence of our Indian Spirits speaking is merely an instance of the proverbial Old Wine in New Bottles. I apologize for any inconvenience to the reader.

[3] Literally, He journeys yet, Passive Voice.

[4] Physical death.

[5] Passive Voice.

[6] A condition maintained for weeks, month, up to a year (if a great person, like Sachim).

[9] The Indian word is mannitoo-oo; the first two syllables mean “spirit”; the latter   asserts the true existence of its being (“it is !”); from—Experience Mayhew (1722), “Observations on the Indian Language” (p. 15). Roger Williams was told about 38 names for spirits. He records only about 12 in A Key (1643). 

[10] Some say pronounced either “mah-nuh-doo” or “muhn-doo”.

[11] Perhaps of form “He, she-us”; see Hagenau M.A. Thesis, 1962.

[12] Powwáw ~ A Priest   [“Medicine Man” , Spiritual Leader]; Powwaûog ~ Priests

        These doe begin and order their service, and Invocation of their Gods, and all the people follow, and joyne interchanageably in a laborious service, unto sweating, especially of the Priest, who spends himselfe in strange Antick Gestures, and Actions even unto fainting.

        In sickness the Priest comes close to the sick person, and performes many strange Actions about him, and threaten and conjures out the sickness. They conceive that there are many Gods or divine Powers within the body of a man: In his pulse, his heart, his Lungs, &c. (Roger Williams, 1643)

^[13] “Taupowaüog.…they make solemne speeches and orations, or Lectures to them, concerning Religion, Peace, or Warre and all things” (Roger Williams, 1643, p. 128).

[14] Literally, “Sleeping, a sleeping”.

[15] Roger Williams translates this as literally “looking glass”; some dispute translation. Apparently there was a belief in two types of “souls” (Simmons, 1978). Cowwéwonck (“sleeping”) is the “dream soul” which traveled at night in dreams, and appeared as a light while one slept.  During illness, the dream soul left the body. Michachuck is the “clear soul” thought to reside in the heart, the “life force” of every person. The dream soul is believed to have returned to Kautántowwit’s house in the southwest after death to live a life very much as on earth. Evil persons were forced to roam forever for their punishment. Dreams and visions (with fasting) were undertaken to appeal to Manitou through the dream soul for a more successful life, protection, strength and balance or “centering”. See p. 135 for Williams' reference to "their souls".

[16] Or Keihtanit. The “Great Spirit” is Kautan, Kiehtan ("chief, greatest"). The southwest is the origin and final resting place of Indians in old traditions.

[17] The Dialogue is the Middle Passage as verbalized by the Missionary voice of Roger Williams—When the Tears Drowned The Sun.   The Era-of- !

[18] From A Key …. (1643, Chapter XXI, pp. 132-139).

[19] Notice how Williams is using the Narragansett word for “spirit” to explain the Christian abstract concept “God”. It must have been very confusing to the Native peoples.  Very few Indians converted to Christianity in this period.

[20] The Christian monotheistic meaning.

[21] This and the next line show the Objective Indicative Mode of the form k’***uckqun which is translated in A Key in the normalized form “He-us”. In fact it might actually be the form “He, she-you”, k’***uck.  Thus, based on “normalized form, ” “God is angry with you” might be Cummusquanamûck manìt. See Hagenau, M. A. Thesis, 1962

[22] See previous footnote re k’***uckqun & k’***uck. 

[23] “Because of your spirits--they are many”.

[24] This word is used as an accusation or demand or warning.

[25] “You repent—must—all” (Indicative mode).   Suggested Imperative mode: Cuppittakúnnike wèpe wáme ! (Type II, Imper; Indian Grammar Dict., 2000).

[27] Principally from—(a) Williams, Roger (1643) and reconstruction by author, (b) and other (c) sources including Western Abenaki (Day, 1995),   Pequot-Mohegan (Prince & Speck, 1904), Cotton (1707), Hagenau (1962), Aubin (1972), Trumbull (1903), Goddard and Bragdon (1988) & Oral Tradition.

[28] Bible, 1 Chr. 4, 22 (Trumbull, 1903, p. 94).

[29] Auntau = “he speaks” (phonetically said, “aundow”, nasalized) is a 3^rd-person singular, indicative, animate, intransitive, TYPE U verb, transformed into a normalized TYPE III verb (see Moondancer, Indian Grammar Dictionary …., p. 17 [“speak”], and Grammar Table, following p. 114). Many of the names for spirits end in -and, -anit, and the like. My reconstructive  creation-rules are based on exemplary structures in A Key, Chapter XXI, pp. 122 ff. Obviously, there is no linguistic or epistemological model for discrepancy-validation since no speakers of the language exist.    The suffixes are apparently derived from the word manit, glossed as “above, superior, more than, beyond”.  Oral tradition tells us that many of the spirits communicated with the living through visions & dreams. The souls of men hunted at night the souls of animals in the forest.    Native peoples often invoked or called upon specific spirits—just as Roman Catholics call upon certain saints for protection, etc. One European’s understanding stated that Manitou signified a name given to “all that surpasses their understanding from a cause that they cannot trace” (Trumbull, 1866 edition). Of A Key).

[30] From verb, “He cuts trees”. Said “tuh-mahkw” because plural has qu sound (a general rule).

[31] [male?]

[32] Roger Williams mentions in A Key a black fox (no name recorded) which the natives prized and adored but could rarely catch.    Perhaps one way to say “black fox” is moáshim (literally, “black animal”) modeled on the form for “red fox”; plural mooshìmwock.

[33] Noun is “Black” + “snake”. Plural, moaskùgog. This word shows the process of combining two or more words into one word with the individual words becoming contracted.   Moaskug comes from “he is black” (mowêsu) + “snake” on previous line. The word mowêsu became contracted or shortened to mo. Thus, to construct a word “red snake”, we take animate form for “red” (mishquêsu) + snake, or mishquáskug. The most difficult aspect of analyzing compound words is locating the original contracted words; sometimes but a single letter representing the original root; cf. derivation for “cattle,” p. 102 or p. 144, “You will be hanged,” in Introduction to the Narragansett Language…., 2001.

[34] Fur much valued by Native peoples. Plural of “black wolf” is moattùqussuck.

[35] See Introduction to the Narragansett Language…., 2001 for following entry:

 

[36] “The body” (mo- = “the”; -hock = “body, cover, shell”).

[37] “The red tree”—very sacred tree; its classification is “animate”—only cedar and pine trees and maple trees are “animate”.   Plural is perhaps mishquawtuckquâog.

[38] Red cedar, a very sacred tree.

[39] English word “chick” transferred.

[40] “Little colored squirrel” or “stripped squirrel” or “ground squirrel”.

[41] “He ducks between”?

[42] European import & English word with plural.

[43] A sacred bird, who from Oral Tradition, brought the corn, beans, and squash (“three sister” foods) from the southwest.

[44] In Natick, this word translates as “playing”.   The word for dance is pumukau (“He dances”) and pumukauog  (“They dance”), perhaps from stem pauchau (“he turns, branches”)

[45] Spirit of death, night, northeast wind, the dark, color black, and underworld. Abbomocho in the following line is a spelling variant.

[Hobomock or Abbomocho] they call upon to cure their wounds and diseases. When they are curable, he persuades them he sends the same for some conceived anger against them; but their calling upon him, can and doth help them; but when they are mortal and not curable in nature, then he persuades them Kiehtan is angry, and sends them, whom none can cure; insomauch as in that respect only they somewhat doubt whether be he simply good, and therefore in sickness never call upon him. (from Winslow, quoted in Bragdon, 1996, p. 189, In Wampanoag Cultural History, Chap. III, Religion).

[46] A great buck; "kutt = “great (large)”; -omp = “male”, perhaps said “kuh-tee-yahp” or "kuh-tie-yahp" (?)

[47] Great buck.

[48] “He moves and turns”.

[49] A buck.

[50] “Wet nose” or “Doe with a fawn”?

[51] “At the tree” or “he hunts", Also spelled ahtukq, attuck; ahtuhquog (plural). Pronounced “ah-tuhkw” (a qu sound like in queen is at end of word). This and many words ending in a k have the kw sound when the plural has this kw sound (one reason it is important to know the plural for a word). Possibly “fallow deer” or “white-tailed deer” is referred to by this word. Some meanings of “deer” include any animal of the family of hoofed, cud-chewing animals such as moose, and other animals not thought to be of this region (caribou, reindeer, etc.). A roe is a non-American small, swift deer. A hart is a male deer, esp. red in color after the 5th year life when the crown antlers are formed (also “stag”). A buck is male, and doe is female; fawn is under a year old.

[52] "Small, turning around to look”.

[53] Young (small) buck.

[54] A doe.

[55] Little young doe.

[56] Frequentative and imitative form (“shake-shake”). The repetition or duplication of the first syllable que is a common feature in the Algonquian Indian languages, referred to as frequentative or reduplication. It is a way of describing or emphasizing something that is going on repeatedly or habitually. For example, mameech = “s/he eats a lot” from meech = “s/he eats”

[57] "wah-bah-naND".

[58] “Smooth” & “female”

[59] “Female” + “animal". Plural, Squáshimwock.

[60] 4-legged.

[61] Or “pine”.

[62] It is most interesting to witness the explanation given by Narragansetts to Roger Williams on the metaphysical derivation of “spirits”:

“When I argued with them about their Fire-God [Yotáanit]: can it, say they, be but this fire must be a God, or Divine power, that out of a stone will arise in a Sparke, and when a poore naked Indian is ready to starve with cold in the House, and especially in the Woods, often saves his life, doth dresse all our Food for us, and if he be angry will burne the House about us, yea if a spark fall into the drie wood, burnes up the Country ? (though this burning of the Wood to them they count a Benefit, both for destroying of vermin, and keeping down the Weeds and thickets)”. (A Key, p. 125)

[63] Derived from p. 36, Understanding Algonquian Indian Words (2001). Apparently from word for “fire” (Yòte, Narragansett) , and root for “firm, hard, closed-up, blocked up” (-kup-)

[64] Old fashioned term for any strong alcoholic drink.

[65] See Chapter XIX, Introduction to the Narragansett Language…. for other fish.

[66] Toueu (towew) = "deserted, solitary" (as in touohkpmuk = "forest, ["a solitary place"]) in Natick

[67] Oral tradition speaks of the constant warring between wunnand and mattand, and the rituals and ceremonies to find the balance between these two forces in the natural, preternatural and supernatural realms of being and doing.

[68] Plural is Pequáwussuck. Why not said pequáshim, we do not know, but perhaps it is from another dialect; for example, in Pequot we see mucks for “wolf” (derived from mogkeóaas, meaning “great animal”, where -eoaa- is not spoken in the Pequot dialect). Different tribes sometimes had different names for the same animals; rivers, etc. even though they spoke closely related dialects of the same language.

[69] -awus = “animal”. Wonkus is a Natick word for “fox” (“he doubles, winds” + “animal”). This is the name of the family Uncas of the Mohegans (Speck, 1928). Wonkus was used to describe King Philip and his tactics—attack and double back.

[70] From its use in Pequot (Prince & Speck, 1904), we can perhaps say “red squirrel” as mishquánneke [add -s and you have “little...”].   The “Great Red Squirrel” is perhaps mishe-mishquánneke.

[71] “The large clawer”? Perhaps a kw sound at end.

[72] European import; sound of horse—naynay + “to carry”.

[73] “Male” + “animal”. Plural, Enewáshimwock.

[74] 4-legged.

[75] Ojibwa (Baraga,1878, 1992).   Plural is nĭnâtĭkog (animate noun form). Only cedar and

pine/fir trees and maple trees are “animate”.   

[76] The moon or a star in general; root suggest “alone, by self, or island”.

[77] Moose ~ “He trims, smoothes” or “smooth dressed skin”. Apparently a 1-syllable word. The word moosi means “it is smooth, bald, bare”. We get Natick compound words from it like, moosompsk (“smooth stone”); moosontupan (“he is bald on the forehead”).

[78] Also called “Great Ox” or "red deer".  Some were 12-feet high.

[79] “He scratches, tears”.

[80] Or “fir”.

[81] “Hold with hands”; “face washer”?

[82] “mihs-kwah-shim” (we don't say “sh” in words with -sh- before a consonant).

[83] “Red animal”. Plural is mishquáshimwock.

[84] Common word in Algonquian with meaning "extended, stretched out". We say "zeeb".

[85] Does it make sense to create the “The Deceased Sachem’s Spirit Speaks” ~ Chepassôtamanit auntau, given that Oral Tradition forbids speaking of the dead?

[86] From pum, pummoh, “the sea”.

[87] “Great expanse”. Plural kittannash.

[88] Language source unknown; from Frank Waabu O’Brien [Moondancer] “Fish and Aquatic Animals,” Aquidneck Indian Council, 2003 (unpub).

[89] My Sister

[90] Western Abenaki in Day’s dictionary.

[91] Inferred meanings of “snow”: Sóchepo is probably "snow falling," maybe a wet, pelting type. Cône ( or Koon) is believed to be "snow on the ground" and corresponds to neighboring Pequot (Prince & Speck, 1904). In Pequot it's written gûn with û said like u in "rule".  In Pequot dialect, we tend to hear our c or k sound as a hard g as in "go". Muhpoo, I believe, is a light, soft, descending spirit. One may create spirit-speaking names for Sóchepo  & Muhpoo.

[92] People of our tribe; ninnu = s/he is a tribal member.   Other meanings of “Indian” include: Ninnimissinnûwock ~ Indian People not of our tribe; Eniskeetompaûwog ~ Indians in general

[93] Perhaps from “impenetrable back” These large fish were sometimes hunted at night by torchlight.

[94] "The power in the sky".

[95] See Chapter XVI, Introduction to the Narragansett Language …. for other trees.

[96] Other “water” names found in Frank Waabu O’Brien [Moondancer], “Fish and Aquatic Animals,” Aquidneck Indian Council, 2003 (unpub).

[97] Also, "panther, mountain lion," or animals making a hissing sound— "pussough".

[98] Pequot-based.

[99] “He goes under roots”, “he burrows”. Name given by Indians to the pig or swine of the English.

[100] Or “groundhog”.